Tech
Why trusted execution environments will be integral to proof-of-stake blockchains
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Ever since the invention of Bitcoin, we have seen a tremendous outpouring of computer science creativity in the open community. Despite its obvious success, Bitcoin has several shortcomings. It is too slow, too expensive, the price is too volatile and the transactions are too public.
Various cryptocurrency projects in the public space have tried to solve these challenges. There is particular interest in the community to solve the scalability challenge. Bitcoin’s proof-of-work consensus algorithm supports only seven transactions per second throughput. Other blockchains such as Ethereum 1.0, which also relies on the proof-of-work consensus algorithm, also demonstrate mediocre performance. This has an adverse impact on transaction fees. Transaction fees vary with the amount of traffic on the network. Sometimes the fees may be lower than $1 and at other times higher than $50.
Proof-of-work blockchains are also very energy-intensive. As of this writing, the process of creating Bitcoin consumes around 91 terawatt-hours of electricity annually. This is more energy than used by Finland, a nation of about 5.5 million.
While there is a section of commentators that think of this as a necessary cost of protecting the entire financial system securely, rather than just the cost of running a digital payment system, there is another section that thinks that this cost could be done away with by developing proof-of-stake consensus protocols. Proof-of-stake consensus protocols also deliver much higher throughputs. Some blockchain projects are aiming at delivering upwards of 100,000 transactions per second. At this performance level, blockchains could rival centralized payment processors like Visa.

The shift toward proof-of-stake consensus is quite significant. Tendermint is a popular proof-of-stake consensus framework. Several projects such as Binance DEX, Oasis Network, Secret Network, Provenance Blockchain, and many more use the Tendermint framework. Ethereum is transitioning toward becoming a proof-of-stake-based network. Ethereum 2.0 is likely to launch in 2022 but already the network has over 300,000 validators. After Ethereum makes the transition, it is likely that several Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM) based blockchains will follow suit. In addition, there are several non-EVM blockchains such as Cardano, Solana, Algorand, Tezos and Celo which use proof-of-stake consensus.
Proof-of-stake blockchains introduce new requirements
As proof-of-stake blockchains take hold, it is important to dig deeper into the changes that are unfolding.
First, there is no more “mining.” Instead, there is “staking.” Staking is a process of putting at stake the native blockchain currency to obtain the right to validate transactions. The staked cryptocurrency is made unusable for transactions, i.e., it cannot be used for making payments or interacting with smart contracts. Validators that stake cryptocurrency and process transactions earn a fraction of the fees that are paid by entities that submit transactions to the blockchain. Staking yields are often in the range of 5% to 15%.
Second, unlike proof-of-work, proof-of-stake is a voting-based consensus protocol. Once a validator stakes cryptocurrency, it is committing to staying online and voting on transactions. If for some reason, a substantial number of validators go offline, transaction processing would stop entirely. This is because a supermajority of votes are required to add new blocks to the blockchain. This is quite a departure from proof-of-work blockchains where miners could come and go as they pleased, and their long-term rewards would depend on the amount of work they did while participating in the consensus protocol. In proof-of-stake blockchains, validator nodes are penalized, and a part of their stake is taken away if they do not stay online and vote on transactions.

Third, in proof-of-work blockchains, if a miner misbehaves, for example, by trying to fork the blockchain, it ends up hurting itself. Mining on top of an incorrect block is a waste of effort. This is not true in proof-of-stake blockchains. If there is a fork in the blockchain, a validator node is in fact incentivized to support both the main chain and the fork. This is because there is always some small chance that the forked chain turns out to be the main chain in the long term.
Punishing blockchain misbehavior
Early proof-of-stake blockchains ignored this problem and relied on validator nodes participating in consensus without misbehaving. But this is not a good assumption to make in the long term and so newer designs introduce a concept called “slashing.” In case a validator node observes that another node has misbehaved, for example by voting for two separate blocks at the same height, then the observer can slash the malicious node. The slashed node loses part of its staked cryptocurrency. The magnitude of a slashed cryptocurrency depends on the specific blockchain. Each blockchain has its own rules.

Fourth, in proof-of-stake blockchains, misconfigurations can lead to slashing. A typical misconfiguration is one where multiple validators, which may be owned or operated by the same entity, end up using the same key for validating transactions. It is easy to see how this can lead to slashing.
Finally, early proof-of-stake blockchains had a hard limit on how many validators could participate in consensus. This is because each validator signs a block two times, once during the prepare phase of the protocol and once during the commit phase. These signatures add up and could take up quite a bit of space in the block. This meant that proof-of-stake blockchains were more centralized than proof-of-work blockchains. This is a grave issue for proponents of decentralization and consequently, newer proof-of-stake blockchains are shifting towards newer crypto systems that support signature aggregation. For example, the Boneh-Lynn-Shacham (BLS) cryptosystem supports signature aggregation. Using the BLS cryptosystem, thousands of signatures can be aggregated in such a way that the aggregated signature occupies the space of only a single signature.
How trusted execution environments can be integral to proof-of-stake blockchains
While the core philosophy of blockchains revolves around the concept of trustlessness, trusted execution environments can be integral to proof-of-stake blockchains.
Secure management of long-lived validator keys
For proof-of-stake blockchains, validator keys need to be managed securely. Ideally, such keys should never be available in clear text. They should be generated and used inside trusted execution environments. Also, trusted execution environments need to ensure disaster recovery, and high availability. They need to be always online to cater to the demands of validator nodes.
Secure execution of critical code
Trusted execution environments today are capable of more than secure key management. They can also be used to deploy critical code that operates with high integrity. In the case of proof-of-stake validators, it is important that conflicting messages are not signed. Signing conflicting messages can lead to economic penalties according to several proof-of-stake blockchain protocols. The code that tracks blockchain state and ensures that validators do not sign conflicting messages needs to be executed with high integrity.
Conclusions
The blockchain ecosystem is changing in very fundamental ways. There is a large shift toward using proof-of-stake consensus because it offers higher performance and a lower energy footprint as compared to a proof-of-work consensus algorithm. This is not an insignificant change.
Validator nodes must remain online and are penalized for going offline. Managing keys securely and always online is a challenge.
To make the protocol work at scale, several blockchains have introduced punishments for misbehavior. Validator nodes continue to suffer these punishments because of misconfigurations or malicious attacks on them. To retain the large-scale distributed nature of blockchains, new cryptosystems are being adopted. Trusted execution environments that offer disaster recovery, high availability, support new cryptosystems such as BLS and allow for the execution of custom code with high integrity are likely to be an integral part of this shift from proof-of-work to proof-of-stake blockchains.
Pralhad Deshpande, Ph.D., is senior solutions architect at Fortanix.
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Tech
The best wireless gaming headsets: Top picks for audio quality, comfort, and more
The arrival of 2.4GHz wireless technology has made wireless gaming headsets more reliable than ever before, the best of which can now rival their wired counterparts when it comes to connection latency and sound quality. But no two wireless gaming headsets are made the same. Manufacturers cater to all tastes and budgets, so there are myriad different styles, designs, and hardware inclusions that can vary how they look, feel, and sound.
To hardcore gamers, gaming headsets have become another tool that helps them get an edge over competitors, hence personalization is a big consideration. Here players look for headsets with the best spatial audio, and software support to fine tune audio settings like EQ and to tailor-make presets for specific games.
Suffice to say, considering all the ins and outs of a particular headset can be a little daunting. To simplify things, our PCWorld reviewers have done the legwork by getting hands-on with each device. While we review everything that comes our way—the good, the bad, and the ugly—only those that have excelled in our testing make it into our list below. These headsets strike a balance between performance and usability, placing them in a league above the rest.
For a rundown on how we test wireless gaming headsets and for buying advice, read on below our recommendations.
1. Astro A50 – Best overall wireless gaming headset / Best premium option
Pros
- Charging cradle is smaller and still very unique
- Switches to the more reliable 2.4GHz band (finally)
- Comfortable and durable
Cons
- Middling battery life
- Poor noise isolation
- Expensive
Although it doesn’t come cheap, the Astro A50 packs in more gamer convenience than most similarly priced gaming headsets. In our PCWorld hands-on review we considered the A50’s onboard controls, which include an easy-to-locate volume wheel and a chat/game channel mixer, to be best in class. The mixer allows you to easily switch between your game audio and chat programs in an instant.
As well as a refined audio profile, the A50 features a sleek and convenient charging cradle that displays your chosen EQ profile and your selected audio mode—Dolby or stereo. The headset uses the current best-standard 2.4GHz band Wi-Fi signal for the most reliable wireless connectivity. It’s also comfortable and durable.
Read our full
Astro A50 (2019) review
2. SteelSeries Arctis Nova Pro Wireless – Best audio quality
Pros
- Great quality audio
- Dual wireless functionality
- Lots of software options for personalization
Cons
- Quite expensive
- Active Noise Cancellation won’t block out all external sound
The SteelSeries Arctis Nova Pro features just about everything you could possibly want in a wireless gaming headset, including excellent sound quality, style, comfort and a durable metal headband. With support for 2.4GHz Wi-Fi and Bluetooth wireless, as well as wired connectivity, the Arctis Nova Pro is easily compatible with your PC, laptop, or Xbox device. It also comes with a GameDAC base controller that lets you switch between your PC and Xbox One or Xbox X/S at the press of a button.
The headset incorporates technologies that elevate your listening experience, including Active Noise Cancellation, 360 Degree Spatial Audio, and Pro Grade Parametric EQ. All this functionality will set you back $349.99, which admittedly isn’t cheap. But for a headset that sounds this impressive and can actually make you a better gamer, that could be a price worth paying.
Read our full
SteelSeries Arctis Nova Pro Wireless review
3. Razer Barracuda Pro – Best surround sound
Pros
- Excellent audio through the bass, mid, and high tones
- THX Spatial Audio is a treat in games
- Lightweight and comfortable design
Cons
- No boom mic means the mic audio suffers somewhat
- ANC works but could be better
Gamers wanting a full surround sound experience—either for the strategic advantage that brings, or just for thrills, should dig this headset that features arguably the best spatial audio we’ve heard. The pro-grade Razer Barracuda Pro supports THX Spatial Audio that delivers excellent sound directionality in games like Counter-Strike: Global Offensive and Battlefield I. Razer’s Synapse app also lets you personalize the spatial audio by tweaking the audio’s directionality and creating profiles for specific games and media.
The Barracuda Pro is a little different from other gaming headsets in that it doesn’t have a dedicated boom microphone, relying instead on innocuous slots to pick up the sound of your voice for chats. The advantage of that is that it can pass off as a convincing headphone at anytime, making it a highly versatile device.
Read our full
Razer Barracuda Pro review
4. Logitech G935 – Best mid-range wireless gaming headset
Pros
- Leatherette is a classy change from the G933’s sports mesh
- Hidden microphone and dongle storage are great features to have
- One of the best-sounding headsets at this price
Cons
- Bulky and boxy compared to the competition
- Mediocre battery life
- Very little noise isolation
It may be a mid-range device but the G935’s flowing S-curve design and stylish leatherette earcup coverings class up the headset’s overall look. The G935 also sounds impressive thanks to 50mm audio drivers that deliver a rich bass-presence and warmth through the mid tones.
The G935’s microphone reproduces voice chats with a clarity you’d scarcely expect to hear from a mid-range device. In what amounts to a nifty piece of engineering, the mic also folds up into the headset’s body when you don’t need it, keeping it out of sight. There’s also a handy onboard compartment to store your Wi-Fi dongle so that it doesn’t get lost.
Read our full
Logitech G935 review
5. HyperX Cloud Core Wireless – Best budget wireless gaming headset
Pros
- Decent audio quality, with deep bass and clear mids and highs
- Durable, strong, and portable design
- Highly comfortable earcups with memory foam cushioning and leatherette coverings
Cons
- No Active Noise Cancellation
- Metal headband attachments can sometimes trap your fingers
The HyperX Cloud Core Wireless ticks off must-haves, like great audio quality, but also backs those up with a few nice-to-haves like durability and excellent spatial audio, which for just $99 is exceptional value. The spatial audio comes courtesy of DTS Headphone: X which is managed in the third-party DTS Sound Unbound app. This app leverages Microsoft Spatial Sound technology so it gets decent Windows support and it’s easily downloadable in the Microsoft App Store.
The headset’s Wi-Fi signal is delivered over the 2.4GHz band and in our hands-on it proved very reliable, never dropping out or suffering interference. If your ears like a touch of luxury, the headset’s plush memory foam cushioning and leatherette earcup coverings will keep them feeling snug and comfy.
Read our full
HyperX Cloud Core Wireless review
How we test wireless gaming headsets
To find the best of the best, we put every wireless gaming headset through a legion of tests. We examine everything from design and styling to the integrity of their Wi-Fi and/or Bluetooth signals. Since these headsets are tailor-made for gaming, we spend many hours trying them out in games, listening closely to their sound quality, and testing extra features like Active Noise Cancellation (ANC) or spatial audio technologies. Our testing criteria mainly falls under these categories:
Design and ergonomics
When it comes to gaming headsets, design is crucial for your overall comfort. It’s also crucial for maximizing your gaming experience. To that end we consider factors like the overall shape and fit of the headband and earcups, their clamping force, and crucially what they’re made of—which affects how they feel. We also examine things like whether they have boom microphones, if the microphones are detachable, and whether there’s onboard storage for the dongle.
Connectivity
Wireless gaming headsets transmit sound to and from your PC via a wireless signal. However, the way they do this can vary. Key connectivity considerations are whether the headset connects via a Wi-Fi or a Bluetooth signal or provides a choice of both of these options. We also look at the Wi-Fi band the headset uses, all the while mindful that the 2.4GHz band is the current best-in-class standard for a low-latency connection.
Audio quality
This will make or break your gaming experience, and while there are lots of factors that determine audio quality, it can quite simply be determined by listening closely to the fidelity of the sound and the tonal range available. We also listen keenly for any audio distortion, such as rattling or hissing sounds that can be red flags for sound quality.
How to choose a wireless gaming headset
Connectivity: Wi-Fi versus Bluetooth
A low-latency connection can make a world of difference, allowing you to hear the best quality sound while also minimizing the likelihood of signal dropout or interference. As a general rule the lowest latency wireless connection you can get these days comes courtesy of a 2.4GHz Wi-Fi connection. A Wi-Fi connection will also give you the best wireless range, allowing you to wander anywhere up to 20 feet away from your device without losing your audio. However, to take advantage of Wi-Fi you’ll need to plug a dongle into your devices.
Some headsets also offer Bluetooth connectivity, which still does a decent job transmitting your audio signal but somewhat lowers the fidelity of the sound quality. Another downside is it can also suffer latency issues. And, while it’s granted that most gamers wouldn’t choose Bluetooth over Wi-Fi for these reasons, one benefit of Bluetooth is that if you plan on using your gaming headset with multiple devices, it allows you to conveniently and quickly switch between them without needing a dongle.
Compatibility: Why checking is important
It pays to research which of your devices work with a new gaming headset since compatibility can vary widely. By that we mean checking to see if it works with any consoles you might have, such as Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4 or 5, or XBox X/S, and your smartphone. Doing so can save you the cost and inconvenience of having to purchase multiple headsets.
You’ll also want to check that the headset’s software-dependent features like 3D spatial audio are supported by not only the devices, but also the games you want to use it with, since that is not a given and you may be sorely disappointed if you can’t take advantage of the full breadth of your headset’s capabilities.
What design traits are the most comfortable?
Beyond just being pleasant to wear, comfortable headsets help prevent pain and injury to your ears and head. What constitutes a comfortable headset can come down to personal preference, but as a general rule, these points will help guide you in choosing one that’ll keep you feeling snug:
- Lightweight design: Lighter headsets are generally more comfy over prolonged periods, and can prevent you feeling too much pressure on the top of your head. Designs that incorporate plastic tend to be lighter than those that have more metal in them.
- Soft materials and padding: The padding and coverings in headsets can be made from a broad spectrum of materials, including PVC, rubber, memory foam, artificial leather and plastic. Ideally the padding in the earcups should gently melt into the sides of your head with minimal force, while the earcup coverings should feel smooth rather than coarse. Many manufacturers opt for a combination of memory foam padding with a leatherette coverings that we think gives you the most luxurious and comfortable feeling you can get these days.
- Extendable and flexible headband: A headband that extends vertically to cover your ears will prevent soreness in the parts of your ears not cupped, while one that is flexible and opens easily will reduce unwanted clamp force hurting your ears and the sides of your head.
- Rotating earcups: These allow your head a degree of horizontal movement (left and right) without the headset’s earcups pulling your ears in the other direction.
What makes a headset durable?
As is the case with most other tech devices, wireless gaming headsets that eschew plastic for metal in their designs are a lot tougher and tend to last longer than those that don’t. That’s especially important for the arc of the headband which will quite often snap in two when made entirely from plastic.
When it comes to the durability of earcups, genuine leather tends to reign supreme over other materials, being a little more resistant to wear and tear than leatherette, plastic, or polyester cloth. On the flipside, leather tends not to circulate as much air to your ears and thus can make you sweat more, so any durability concerns you have will need to be weighed up against your personal comfort needs.
Spatial audio or no?
Most wireless gaming headsets will offer stereo sound from both earcups, but an increasing number now offer 3D spatial audio. This feature mimics the kind of sound experience you’d expect to get from having multiple speakers, thereby delivering sound through a 360-degree sound-scape in your headset.
Headsets like the Razer Barracuda Pro Wireless, SteelSeries Arctis Nova Pro Wireless, and HyperX Cloud Core Wireless, all offer their own spatial audio technologies, so the chances are good that a new-to-market mid-range or premium headset will support this technology.
While there are some differences between the spatial audio technologies used by different headsets, on the whole most work reasonably well, allowing you to clearly hear the directionality of sounds in games. Suffice to say, if you’re a competitive gamer this feature can give you a big advantage over your competitors, allowing you to better pinpoint sounds like your opponents’ foot-falls, explosions, or enemy fire a little easier than you otherwise would.
Noise Isolation: What to look for
Noise isolation refers to how well your headset can isolate the sound coming from your own gaming headset while simultaneously blocking out any external sound from outside. Apart from just being plain annoying, sound leaking into your headset can be a strategic disadvantage in tightly contested games, especially in shooters like Overwatch or Counter-Strike: Global Offensive that rely on directional audio prompts.
At the very least, you will want to ensure your gaming headset has decent passive noise isolation, which is a measure of how well its overall physical design is effective at stopping external sound entering your ears. However, if only the strongest noise-blocking power will do, look for a headset with Active Noise Cancellation. This technology actively detects and analyzes the sound pattern of incoming noise and then generates a mirror anti-noise to cancel it out.
The microphone: Key considerations
From a design perspective a good microphone should be either detachable or fold back into the headset’s body to be virtually undetectable when you’re not using it. This allows you to more discreetly use your wireless gaming headset as a pair of headphones when you’re not gaming, making it a little more versatile than a purely wired set.
Although you’ll mainly be using your headset’s microphone for casual voice chats in gaming sessions, you’ll also want to check that it has noise-cancelling technology and that the sound it picks up is clear and free of distortion—after all, your gaming friends won’t want to listen to your voice for very long if it’s muffled or full of static.
Tech
Desktop CPU shipments plunge to lowest total in nearly 30 years
Remember about two years ago, when absolutely everyone wanted to either upgrade their existing PC or buy a new one? Yeah, that doesn’t appear to be the case anymore, according to the latest market report from Mercury Research. The report states that x86 chip shipments have dropped by the largest percentage year-over-year since the report began way back in 1994. Analyst Dean McCarron says it’s probably the largest decline since the precipitous downturn of 1984.
“Desktop and mobile client CPU shipments were down significantly compared to a year ago, with desktop CPU unit shipments falling to the lowest level in nearly three decades,” McCarron said in an emailed statement. “Total CPU shipments had the largest on-year decline in the history of our report, which spans 28 years.”
Even so, the news is good if your name is AMD. Across desktops, laptops, and servers, AMD has gained ground on Intel in every segment, totaling 3.7 percent market improvement and nearly 9 percent gain year over year. That measurement from Mercury is broadly in line with the quarterly reports from Intel and AMD — awful and rosy, respectively.
Even while gaining on its industry rival, AMD is showing a downturn in laptop CPU shipments, despite glowing reviews for its Ryzen 5000 and 6000 lines. But in desktop and server shipments the company is well up on its position a year ago. Mercury assigns inventory issues — a symptom of the ongoing global supply chain problems — as the primary culprit for Intel’s loss in all three segments.
Mercury estimates that ARM CPUs like those in Apple’s latest Mac designs, the least expensive Chromebooks, and a few Snapdragon-powered Windows machines make up approximately 9.4 percent of the market. That’s down from the last quarter (assigned to a large drop in Mac sales) but gaining 1.7 percent year-over-year.
Author: Michael Crider, Staff Writer
Tech
Razer’s DeathAdder V3 Pro is ludicrously lightweight, long-lasting, and fast
Razer
Razer’s DeathAdder design is a minor legend among PC gamers, first appearing in 2006 and a favorite ever since for its ergonomic, grippy body shape. The company is giving the design a huge and pricey update today, christening the latest model the DeathAdder V3 Pro. In addition to lightning-fast wireless powers and insane DPI, Razer is highlighting an incredibly lightweight 64-gram (2.22 ounce) body. While far from the world record, it cuts down the weight from the DeathAdder V2 X Hyperspeed by about 25 percent.
In terms of raw hardware, the DeathAdder V3 Pro is…what’s a polite way of saying “deranged?” With a 30,000 DPI optical sensor, at the highest setting you can move a cursor into the next time zone with a twitch, even if you’re tracking on glass. On top of that are Razer’s third-gen optical switches for zero delay and elimination of unintentional double-clicking on the primary two buttons. The button layout is the familiar “shooter” configuration, two thumb buttons, and a single DPI switch on the bottom.
In addition to handy USB-C charging and an impressive 90 hours of battery life, Razer has put a lot of work into the mouse’s wireless connection. On its own the DeathAdder V3 Pro can handle a 1000Hz polling rate, already fairly superhuman and far more than necessary to overcome even the tiniest amount of online multiplayer lag. But for truly insane responsiveness, you can add on the specialized “HyperPolling” dongle (sold separately or in a bundle) for a jaw-dropping 4000Hz.
Razer
The design is so dedicated to saving weight and increasing battery life that Razer didn’t even put any decorative LEDs on it. It even includes “grip tape” in the box, little add-on stickers for the primary buttons and thumb rest. If that doesn’t say “pro gamer,” I don’t know what does. The DeathAdder V3 Pro is on sale now in black or white for an eye-popping $150, and the HyperPolling dongle is an additional $30. You can get them both in a $165 bundle exclusively from Razer’s online store.
Author: Michael Crider, Staff Writer
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